Europaudvalget 2018
KOM (2018) 0269
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EUROPEAN
COMMISSION
Brussels, 22.5.2018
SWD(2018) 169 final
PART 2/7
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT
Situation of young people in the European Union
Accompanying the document
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, THE EUROPEAN COUNCIL, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE
REGIONS
Engaging, Connecting and Empowering young people: a new EU Youth Strategy
{COM(2018) 269 final} - {SWD(2018) 168 final}
EN
EN
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2. Education and Training
EU youth indicators
Young people (aged 20-24) who have completed at least upper secondary education
Tertiary educational attainment of people aged 30-34
Early leavers from education and training
Low-achieving 15 year-old students in reading, mathematics and science
Young people in upper general secondary education learning two or more foreign languages
Figures 2-A and 2-B
Figures 2-C and 2-D
Figures 2-E and 2-F
Figure 2-G
Figure 2-H
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2.1.
INTRODUCTION
The importance of education is unquestioned in today's world. Throughout the years spent in formal education
and by means of the opportunities made available through non-formal and informal education and youth work,
children and young people have the chance to develop their personal and social potential, acquire basic skills
and qualifications, and become integrated into society at large. Indeed, high-quality and inclusive education for
all is one of the most effective defences against the risks of social marginalisation, poverty and exclusion,
especially at times of crisis (
1
).
Moreover, education is not only a fundamental determinant of individual life chances and social participation,
but also of economic development (
2
). Accordingly, obtaining a high-quality education gives the opportunity for
young people to succeed in the labour market and find meaningful employment, while spurring long-term
economic growth.
This chapter discusses the provision of learning opportunities for young people in Europe in both formal and
non-formal settings. Taking a brief look first at the average number of years young Europeans spend in formal
education, the chapter goes on to examine attainment in terms of the educational level completed and student
achievement in reading, mathematics and science. The chapter proceeds to give an insight into the participation
of young people in non-formal learning, including youth work activities, and then turns to analysing how many
young Europeans have had the opportunity to widen their learning experiences by going abroad during their
studies.
2.2. FORMAL EDUCATION
Formal education refers to the structured system of education from pre-primary to tertiary level. This section
considers some of the aspects most relevant to young people: the qualifications they attain
–
or fail to attain if
they leave school prematurely
–
and the skills they acquire in the education system.
2.2.1. Participation and attainment
European children and young people on average spend 17 years in formal education (
3
). Variations between
countries are, however, quite significant, with the expected time spent in education ranging from 15 years in
Luxembourg, to 21 years in Finland (
4
). Such differences are partly due to countries setting different starting
ages for compulsory education (
5
); nevertheless, young people also stay longer in education beyond the
compulsory school years to complete upper secondary and tertiary degrees.
Upper secondary educational attainment is considered the minimum desirable educational attainment level for
EU citizens, as it is a prerequisite for better labour market integration and avoiding poverty and social
exclusion (
6
). In 2016, an average of 83.2 % of 20- to 24-year-olds in the EU had attained at least upper
(
1
)
(
2
)
(
3
)
(
4
)
(
5
)
(
6
)
Council of the European Union, 2017.
EENEE, 2014.
Source: Eurostat, 'Expected school years of pupils and students by education level', online data code: educ_uoe_enra07. Data
extracted on 19/06/2017.
Ibid.
European Commission, 2016a. For a detailed information on the duration of compulsory education/training in European countries,
please see European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017a.
European Commission, 2016a.
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secondary education (Figure 2-A). Approximately one third of countries reported levels significantly higher,
while in Spain, Iceland and Turkey the percentage is equal to or less than 70 %.
Women generally have higher educational attainment levels than men. As
Young people are increasingly
Figure 2-A shows, in the EU-28, on average 85.6 % of women completed at
highly educated. The proportion
least upper secondary education, while the percentage of men with the same
of young Europeans attaining
attainment level was 80.8 %. This pattern holds true for all countries, with
upper secondary qualifications
continues to increase.
the exception of Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia, the former Yugoslav
Republic of Macedonia and Turkey where women and men complete upper secondary education at similar rates.
Men record the lowest rates of upper secondary attainment in comparison to women in Estonia, Spain, Latvia,
Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal and Iceland, with gaps spanning from 9 to 15 percentage points.
Figure 2-A:
Share of young people (aged 20-24) who have completed at least upper secondary education, by
country and by sex, 2016
%
%
EU youth indicator
Total
Source:
Eurostat LFS [edat_lfse_03].
Women
Men
Notes:
Data refer to upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education, corresponding to levels 3 and 4 of the International
Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011).
Over time, young people have become increasingly qualified: in 2016, only 69 % of people aged 55 to 64 had
attained upper secondary qualifications, in comparison with over 83 % of 20-24 year-olds (
7
). Progress has
continued in recent years. Indeed, the proportion of young people aged 20 to 24 with upper secondary or higher
educational attainment has increased continuously since 2010 (Figure 2-B). On average, an increase of almost
four percentage points was registered in the European Union. Two-thirds of countries have witnessed an
increase in the rates of upper secondary attainment. Among them, a few have showed impressive improvements:
Spain, Iceland and Portugal have respectively seen increases of 9.4, 11.8 and 18.4 percentage points since 2010.
A few countries have remained stable over the years, while only two
–
Czech Republic and Slovakia
–
have
recorded slight decreases. They remain nonetheless amongst the countries with the highest proportion of young
people between 20 and 24 having completed at least upper secondary education.
(
7
)
Source: Eurostat, ‘Population by educational attainment level, sex and age’,
online data code: edat_lfse_03. Data extracted on
19/06/2017.
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Figure 2-B:
Changes in the share of young people (aged 20-24) who have completed at least upper secondary
education, EU-28 average and by country, 2010-2016
Increase between 2 and
5 p.p.
Increased between 6
and 9 p.p.
EU youth indicator
Increase over 9 p.p.
Stable
Decrease
Data not collected
Notes:
For data on educational attainment based on the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) the International Standard Classification of
Education 2011 (ISCED 2011) is applied as from 2014. Up to 2013, ISCED 1997 is used. Nevertheless, data are comparable over time for
all available countries.
Source:
Own calculation based on Eurostat LFS [edat_lfse_03].
Looking at higher qualifications than upper secondary level, a tertiary education degree helps young people the
most in securing a job in a high-skilled labour market (as illustrated in the chapter on Employment and
Entrepreneurship, Figure 3-I).
In 2016, an average of 4 out of 10 Europeans between 30 and 34 years of age had achieved a tertiary degree
(Figure 2-C) indicating that the target set in the Europe 2020 strategy was reached earlier than expected (
8
). A
few countries are well above the average, with as many as half of 30- to 34-year-olds having attained a tertiary
degree (Ireland, Cyprus, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Sweden, Iceland and Norway). On the other hand, this
percentage is significantly lower (equal to or below 30 %) in Croatia, Italy, Malta, Romania, the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey. The reasons behind the country variations are multiple and stem
from the cultural, historical and social circumstances of each country. Yet, several characteristics of national
education systems, such as the existence of multiple secondary education pathways leading to higher studies, the
extent to which tertiary institutions select students, and the availability of guidance and information on higher
education options (for both prospective and tertiary students) are recognised as important factors influencing
tertiary attainment (
9
).
(
8
)
(
9
)
The
Europe 2020 strategy’s target aims at raising the level of tertiary attainment amongst 30-34
year-olds to 40 % by 2020.
European Commission, 2017b.
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%
Figure 2-C:
Share of population aged 30-34 with tertiary education attainment, by country and by sex, 2016
%
EU youth indicator
Total
Notes:
Data for Luxembourg have low reliability.
Source:
Eurostat LFS [yth_educ_020].
Women
Men
In accordance with the general educational attainment trends described above, the proportion of women
attaining tertiary education is higher than men. On average, the gender gap amounts to 10 percentage points in
the European Union. Men are furthest behind in Latvia, Lithuania and Slovenia (where the gap is twice the EU
average). In Turkey the trend is the opposite as fewer women than men complete tertiary degrees.
Since 2010, tertiary attainment has increased across Europe (Figure 2-D). On
Increasing proportions of
young Europeans gain
average in the European Union, the proportion of people aged between 30 and 34
tertiary degrees. Women
having a tertiary degree has augmented by five percentage points. Lithuania and
complete tertiary studies
Austria have seen the most significant growth, followed by Czech Republic,
at higher rates than men.
Greece, Latvia, Portugal, Turkey and the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia. The only decrease
–
although quite limited, around two percentage points
–
has been registered in
Spain.
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Figure 2-D:
Changes in the share of population aged 30-34 with tertiary education attainment, by country,
2010-2016
Increase between
2 and 5 p.p.
Increase between
6 and 9 p.p.
EU youth indicator
Increase of 10 p.p.
or more
Stable
Decrease
Data not collected
Notes:
For data on educational attainment based on the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) the International Standard Classification of
Education 2011 (ISCED 2011) is applied as from 2014. Up to 2013 ISCED 1997 is used. Nevertheless, data are comparable over time for all
available countries except Austria due to the reclassification of higher technical and vocational colleges. Data for Luxembourg for 2016 have
low reliability. A break in the time series for Denmark occurred in 2016.
Source:
Own calculation based on Eurostat LFS [yth_educ_020].
Despite this positive trend in educational attainment, a significant share of young Europeans still face significant
difficulties in the education system and feel compelled to leave prematurely without having gained relevant
qualifications or a school certificate. This is the case with early leavers from education and training (also
referred to as 'early school leavers')
–
people aged 18-24 with at most lower secondary education and who were
not in further education or training during the four weeks preceding the survey. Of the factors contributing to
young people leaving education early, socio-economic status proves to have significant weight (
10
). Indeed,
early school leavers are much more likely to come from families with a low socio-economic status (i.e. where
parents are unemployed, have low incomes and low levels of education), or from vulnerable social groups such
as migrants (
11
). Early school leavers are exposed to a particularly high risk of deprivation and social exclusion.
In addition, not only does leaving school and training early result in longer and more frequent spells of
unemployment, but even when integrated into the labour market, early school leavers have fewer opportunities
for personal development and to participate actively in society (
12
).
(
10
)
(
11
)
(
12
)
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Cedefop, 2014.
Ibid.
European Commission, 2016a.
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On average, 10.7 % of Europeans aged 18-24 in 2016 left school having completed lower secondary education
at most (Figure 2-E) (
13
). Several countries report much higher percentages (especially Spain, Malta, Portugal,
Romania, Iceland and Turkey), while the lowest proportions are registered in Croatia, Lithuania and Slovenia,
all with levels below 5 %.
The risk of leaving formal education prematurely and with low qualification levels is higher amongst men than
women. This gender gap applies to most European countries, and is widest in Estonia, Spain, Cyprus, Latvia,
Malta, Portugal and Iceland. Only in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and in Turkey are there more
young women than men leaving formal education early.
Figure 2-E:
Early leavers from education and training (population aged 18-24 with lower secondary education
at most and not in further education or training), by country and by sex, 2016
%
%
EU youth indicator
Total
Notes:
Data for Croatia for 2016 have low reliability.
Source:
Eurostat LFS [edat_lfse_14].
Women
Men
Since 2010
–
in conjunction with reforms in most countries to support young
Across the EU, the
proportion of early school
people at risk of dropping out of school and increase the flexibility and
leavers is declining.
permeability of educational pathways (
14
)
–
there has been a general decline in
the proportion of young people leaving school early in Europe (Figure 2-F). The most significant decrease has
taken place in Portugal, where the proportion of early school leavers has fallen by about 14 percentage points.
Ireland, Greece, Spain, Norway, Turkey and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia have also experienced
a sizeable reduction. Increases have taken place in Hungary, as well as in Czech Republic and Slovakia, which
nonetheless remain below the EU benchmark of 10 %.
(
13
)
(
14
)
The ET 2020 Strategic framework includes a target of reducing the share of early school leavers to below 10 % by 2020.
European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Cedefop, 2014; European Commission, 2017d.
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Figure 2-F:
Changes in the share of early school leavers (population aged 18-24 with lower secondary
education at most and not in further education or training), by country, 2010-2016
Decrease between
1 and 4 p.p.
Decrease between
5 and 9 p.p.
EU youth indicator
Decrease of 10
p.p. or more
Stable
Increase
Data not collected
Notes:
For data on educational attainment based on the EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), the International Standard Classification of
Education 2011 (ISCED 2011) is applied as from 2014. Up to 2013, ISCED 1997 is used. Nevertheless, data are comparable over time for
all available countries except Austria due to the reclassification of higher technical and vocational colleges. Data for Croatia for 2016 have
low reliability. A break in the time series for Denmark occurred in 2016.
Source:
Own calculation based on Eurostat LFS [edat_lfse_14].
Young people who have left school prematurely can be helped to re-enter education and subsequently to gain
higher qualifications through second chance education (
15
) which combines learning with social and emotional
support, or through the validation of learning outcomes achieved by means of non-formal and informal
learning (
16
).
2.2.2. Achievement of young people: key competences
During the years spent in formal education, young people are expected to acquire the key competences that are
essential if they are to achieve their full potential and be successful in their personal and social lives as well as
in their career (
17
).
Amongst these key competences, literacy, mathematics, science and
foreign languages
also figure as EU youth indicators.
(
15
)
(
16
)
(
17
)
European Commission, 2013b.
For the overview of validation mechanisms in place in European education systems, please see European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015a.
The Recommendation adopted by the European Parliament and the Council in 2006 defines key competences as a combination of
knowledge, skills and attitudes which all individuals need for personal fulfilment and development, active citizenship, social
inclusion and employment (Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key
competences for lifelong learning - 2006/962/EC).
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In 2015, on average, about one in five young people aged 15 demonstrated
low levels of proficiency in literacy, numeracy and science (Figure 2-G).
Figure 2-G:
Low-achieving 15 year-old students in reading, mathematics
and science, by country, 2009-2015
%
Further effort to reduce the rate of
under achievement in reading,
mathematics and science is still
needed.
%
Reading
%
Mathematics
%
EU youth indicator
%
Science
%
Notes:
For Malta, the change between PISA 2009 and PISA 2015 represents an effective change from 2010 because it only implemented
the PISA 2009 assessment in 2010 as part of PISA 2009+.
Source:
OECD, PISA.
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The figures clearly indicate a similar pattern in pupil performance in all three skills: countries that show a
certain level of performance in one of these basic skills tend to perform similarly in the others. Cross-country
variations are noticeable. Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta, Romania and Slovakia registered proportions of low
achievers about twice as high as the EU average. Albania, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Montenegro and Turkey showed much higher percentages
between 40 % and 70 %. Conversely, Estonia and
Finland reported the lowest proportions of students with low levels of proficiency in all three competences.
Gender differences (not shown in Figure 2-H), while negligible for mathematics and science, are pronounced in
reading proficiency: on average, 10 % more boys than girls revealed low achievement, and the gap is even wider
in Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Malta, Albania and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (
18
).
Further effort to reduce the rate of underachievement in literacy, numeracy and science is still needed. Europe
still counts a worrying number of pupils with very low basic skills and progress towards achieving the target of
reducing this proportion to below 15 % has been slow (
19
). Since 2009, the average proportions of low achievers
have either stagnated
–
as in the case of reading and mathematics
–
or increased
–
as in science. In particular,
Greece, Hungary, Slovakia, Iceland and Turkey have seen the proportion of pupils with poor performance in all
three core competences surge upwards with percentage increases of between 6 and 15 points.
Knowledge of foreign languages is a significant advantage for young people. It enables them to discover and
understand different cultures, and expand their educational and professional prospects by opening up
opportunities to study and work abroad.
One in two students enrolled in general secondary education learns two or more foreign languages in the
European Union (Figure 2-H). In about one third of countries, the proportion is much higher, approaching or
reaching 100 %. Conversely, Ireland, the United Kingdom and some southern European Member States show
particularly low proportions of young people learning at least two foreign languages.
Figure 2-H:
Share of young people in upper general secondary education (ISCED 3gen) learning two or more
foreign languages, by country, 2013 and 2015
%
%
EU youth indicator
2013
2015
Notes:
EU-28 totals are calculated on the basis of the countries for which data are available. Where possible the previous/following year
data have been used to compute the EU aggregates.
Source:
Eurostat UOE [educ_uoe_lang02].
(
18
)
(
19
)
Data on gender differences are available at
https://data.oecd.org/pisa/reading-performance-pisa.htm
(last accessed on 19/06/2017).
The Europe 2020 strategy includes a target to reduce the share of low achievers in reading, mathematics and science amongst
15 year-olds to below 15 % by 2020.
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There has been a slightly positive trend across countries since 2013 in terms of the opportunity to learn more
than one foreign language in upper secondary general education. A few countries have seen significant increases
equal to or above six percentage points (Czech Republic, Ireland, Croatia and Austria). However, only a
minority of the countries have introduced attainment level targets with the aim of ensuring that learners will
reach the threshold of 'independent use' of the second foreign language (
20
).
The level of proficiency in foreign languages acquired by young Europeans is not being systematically
measured across EU countries, although most countries require students to reach level B2 according to the
Common European Framework of Reference for their first foreign language (mostly English) by the end of
upper secondary education (
21
).
2.3.
NON-FORMAL LEARNING AND YOUTH WORK
Non-formal education and training covers any organised and sustained learning activities that do not take place
within the framework of the formal education system (
22
). Non-formal learning is undertaken intentionally but
participation in the courses or activities is voluntary (
23
). As acknowledged by the Council of the European
Union, non-formal learning can greatly contribute to increasing the motivation of young Europeans to undertake
lifelong learning as well as improving their employability and job mobility, provided that mechanisms for
recognising and validating the skills acquired are widely available (
24
).
Indeed, non-formal learning can help release the potential of many young people by uncovering and developing
their knowledge, skills and attitudes and by encouraging the acquisition of new kinds of capacities. While these
opportunities are important for all young people, they can be particularly beneficial to those who are at an
educational disadvantage (
25
).
On average in the European Union, 1 in 10 young Europeans participate
One in 10 young Europeans
in non-formal learning (Figure 2-I). However, countries differ greatly in
participates in non-formal learning
terms of the proportion of young people involved. While at least 1 in 5
but countries differ widely in the
level of participation.
young individuals participate in non-formal learning activities in
Denmark, France and Sweden, other countries register much lower
percentages, in particular Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, Slovakia and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
(
20
)
(
21
)
(
22
)
(
23
)
(
24
)
(
25
)
Detailed analysis of national policies can be found in a recent study on language learning in Europe (European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017b).
Ibid. p. 14 and pp. 121-124.
This definition is provided by Eurostat in the context of its lifelong learning statistics and is also applied in the EU LFS which
collects data on participation in non-formal education and training during the four weeks preceding the survey.
In its online glossary, CEDEFOP defines non-formal learning as 'learning which is embedded in planned activities not explicitly
designated as learning (in terms of learning objectives, learning time or learning support), but which contain an important learning
element. Non-formal
learning is intentional from the learner’s
point of view. It typically does not lead to certification'.
http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/events-and-projects/projects/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning/european-
inventory/european-inventory-glossary
(last accessed on 20/06/2017).
European Council Recommendation of 20 December 2012 on the validation of non-formal and informal learning (2012/C 398/01).
Council of Europe, 2005.
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Figure 2-I:
Share of young people (aged 15-29) participating in non-formal learning and training, by country,
2010 and 2016, and by sex, 2016
%
%
Notes:
Data for Croatia and Romania for 2010 have low reliability. Break in time series for data for Denmark in 2016.
Source:
Eurostat LFS [trng_lfs_09].
As illustrated by Figure 2-I, in the EU-28 the average proportion of young women and young men engaging in
non-formal learning are similar. Since 2011, the participation in non-formal learning has slightly increased in
the EU. Some countries have witnessed impressive augmentations, in particular France and Portugal. In
contrast, young people in Denmark and the United Kingdom have engaged to decreasing extents.
Non-formal learning may take place in the context of youth work. According to the Resolution of the Council of
the European Union on youth work from 2010, youth work encompasses activities for and by young people,
taking place in the extracurricular and leisure spheres, and based on voluntary participation. Such activities see
the cooperation of professional and voluntary youth workers, youth leaders, and the active engagement and
contribution of young participants (
26
).
Youth work has been shown to exert positive influence on student
By providing opportunities for non-
achievements in education by fostering non-cognitive skills such as
formal learning, youth work contributes
27
persistence, motivation, and self-efficacy ( ). In particular, young
to the acquisition and enhancement of
key competences essential in promoting
people at risk of dropping out prematurely from education and
youth's education attainment.
training may obtain support from youth workers, gaining access to
learning resources and individualised assistance and becoming motivated to learn again through participation in
the various activities organised for them (
28
). Some youth work programmes have also proven effective in
bringing young people who have left school early back into education by, for example, offering preparatory
courses for re-insertion into mainstream education or second chance programmes (
29
).
(
26
)
(
27
)
(
28
)
(
29
)
Resolution of the Council and of the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on
youth work (2010/C 329/01).
Shernoff and Lowe Vandell, 2007.
European Commission, 2014c. The study offers a detailed and comprehensive assessment of the various traditions and
developments of youth work in Europe. It presents both secondary analysis of previous literature and data on the topic, and first-
hand evidence collected through interviews. Most of the information presented in this section draws from this study's findings.
Ibid.
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Providing information, advice and guidance to support young people in their decision making during their
education and training is another important aspect of youth work (
30
). Indeed, in some European countries,
central authorities place guidance services for students under the auspices of youth work organisations,
delivered by nation-wide networks independent from schools (
31
).
Because youth work is such a wide field encompassing voluntary leisure-time as well as extra-curricular
activities, its contribution goes well beyond supporting young people in their educational experiences. Studies
which have investigated the effects of young people’s participation in youth work activities show that young
people can acquire and reinforce personal skills such as conflict resolution, decision making, goal setting and
interpersonal communication that can prove useful in all spheres of life (
32
). Although data on young people’s
participation in activities organised by youth workers is limited, Chapter 6 of this report provides some insight
into the level of participation in organised voluntary activities (Figure 6-A) while Chapter 9 examines their
involvement in youth organisations, cultural organisations and sports clubs (Figure 9-C).
2.4.
LEARNING MOBILITY
Learning mobility is generally seen as contributing to the development of a wide range of skills and
competences among young people. Most importantly, transversal skills such as critical thinking,
communication, problem-solving, and intercultural understanding are found to be improved by study periods
abroad (
33
). According to the Erasmus Impact Study, students participating in the Erasmus mobility programme
improve their employability skills more than non-participants (
34
). In addition, student mobility programmes
also have the potential to contribute to the overall quality of education (
35
).
Data are available on the flows of internationally-mobile students in tertiary education. Figure 2-J shows the
proportion of students enrolled in a tertiary institution who come from abroad (inward student mobility) in 2015.
Figure 2-J:
Share of internationally-mobile tertiary education students coming from Europe and the rest of the
world, by country, 2015
Europe
Source:
Eurostat UOE [educ_uoe_mobs03].
Countries outside of Europe
(
30
)
(
31
)
(
32
)
(
33
)
(
34
)
(
35
)
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
European Commission, 2014b.
Ibid, p. 14.
Council of the European Union, 2011. European Commission, 2017d.
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Disparities between countries are noticeable not only in terms of the total proportion of foreign students coming
from abroad, but also their origin. While Luxembourg and Liechtenstein report the highest percentages of
students from abroad, data show that they mainly come from other European countries rather than from areas
outside of Europe. This pattern also applies to other countries with relatively high total proportions of incoming
students, including Czech Republic, Denmark and Austria. Conversely, some EU Member States attract high
proportions of tertiary students from areas outside of Europe
at least twice that from other European countries:
this is the case of Ireland (mainly from Asia), France (in particular from African countries), Portugal (with a
prevalence of central and southern American countries), Finland (with high a proportion of students from Asia
including Russia) and the United Kingdom (also mostly from Asia) (
36
).
Besides tertiary education programmes, spending time abroad, getting acquainted with foreign cultures and
interacting with peers from other countries represents an important occasion for non-formal and informal
learning for many young people in Europe (
37
). Unfortunately, quantitative data collected at international level
on learning mobility outside of formal education are scarce (
38
). Qualitative research has nonetheless shed some
light on the learning benefits for participants in international youth mobility projects in the framework of the
Erasmus+ programme (
39
). Participation in youth mobility projects is seen as contributing to the development of
all the key competences for lifelong learning. Communication in a foreign language, sense of entrepreneurship,
civic competences, cultural awareness and expression, and learning skills (learning to learn) are reportedly the
areas in which students benefit the most. A positive impact has also been demonstrated on other competences
such as communication in the first language (mother tongue), mathematical competences and a sense of
initiative (
40
). Youth workers engaged in mobility projects also report that their competences were boosted, in
particular in the context of managing international youth projects (
41
). In line with these general findings, a
survey on young individuals taking part in mobility projects under Erasmus+ during 2015 shows that close to
94 % of the participants reported having improved their key competences and skills relevant to
employability (
42
).
Last but not least, international learning mobility in the context of non-formal learning can be of particular
benefit for young people with fewer opportunities. Qualitative research shows that these experiences actually
bring an added value to the participants in terms of increased self-esteem, social and communicative skills, as
well as vocational skills (
43
).
(
36
)
(
37
)
(
38
)
(
39
)
(
40
)
(
41
)
(
42
)
(
43
)
Source: Eurostat UOE [educ_uoe_mobs03].
Fennes, 2013.
Ibid.
The aim of the Erasmus+ programme is to contribute to the Europe 2020 strategy for growth, jobs, social equity and inclusion, as
well as the aims of ET2020, the EU's strategic framework for education and training. Erasmus+ also aims to promote the
sustainable development of its partners in the field of higher education, and contribute to achieving the objectives of the EU Youth
Strategy. Detailed information is available at
http://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/about_en
(accessed 14/09/2017).
Fennes, 2013.
Ibid.
European Commission, 2017e.
Kristensen, 2012.
29
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Ed uca tion a nd Tra in ing
2
CONCLUSION
Young people are increasingly highly educated. The proportion of young Europeans attaining upper secondary
qualifications continues to increase. Increasing proportions of young Europeans gain tertiary degrees. The
proportion of early school leavers is declining.
However, significant shares of young people face challenges in completing their educational path. Europe still
counts a worrying number of pupils with very low basic skills. What is worse, since 2009, the average
proportions of low achievers have either stagnated
–
as in the case of reading and mathematics
–
or increased
–
as in science. In addition, participation in non-formal learning
–
which can be particularly beneficial to those
who are at an educational disadvantage
–
is still limited.
30