Europaudvalget 2022
KOM (2022) 0034
Offentligt
2524162_0001.png
EUROPEAN
COMMISSION
Brussels, 4.2.2022
SWD(2022) 24 final
PART 4/16
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT
Cohesion in Europe towards 2050
Accompanying the document
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL
COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS
on the 8th Cohesion Report: Cohesion in Europe towards 2050
{COM(2022) 34 final}
EN
EN
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
3
CHAPTER 3 A Greener, low-carbon Europe – PART 1
The EU has adopted the European Green Deal with the goal to make the EU economy
climate-neutral by 2050. This will require a rapid reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, more investments in green technologies and protecting the natural
environment.
GHG emissions dropped by 24% between 1990 and 2019. This suggests the EU will
meet its 2020 target of reducing GHG emissions by 20%. The new 2030 target as
part of the ‘Fit for 55’ is a reduction of 55%. This will imply large reductions in
emissions both within and outside the emissions trading scheme.
Energy consumption has decreased significantly in the EU over the past decades.
Nevertheless, the latest figures indicate that the 2020 energy efficiency target will
be missed. The 2030 target is more ambitious and will require additional efforts.
Renewable energy consumption in the EU rose steadily from 11% in 2006 to 19% in
2018, close to its 2020 target of 20%, but some Member States are lagging behind
their 2020 national targets. The target of 40% by 2030 will require combined efforts
for boosting production of renewable energy and reducing total energy consumption.
Climate change affects a growing number of EU regions but the impact differs
depending on their geography and the structure of their economy. Sectors such as
tourism and agriculture are likely to be particularly affected.
Only 40% of EU water bodies are in a good ecological state. Despite significant
progress, several rural areas and less developed regions still need important
investment in waste water treatment.
The share of waste recovered increased from 46% in 2004 to 54% in 2018 in the EU.
This helps to protect environment, recycle raw materials and recover energy.
Nevertheless, recycling and incineration with energy recovery remain low in several
Member States.
The emissions of most major air pollutants have significantly shrunk in the EU.
Exposure to air pollutants, however, is still high in many cities. One out of three city
residents lives in a city where at least one of the air pollution thresholds is exceeded.
Biodiversity loss and the degradation of ecosystem services continue in the EU across
terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. Protecting and restoring biodiversity
can help to improve the flow of ecosystem services and to mitigate climate change
and its impacts. For example, investing in urban vegetation or wetlands can reduce
the impact of heat waves and floods, provide more habitat for endangered species,
reduce air and noise pollution and provide spaces for leisure, thus improving urban
quality of life. In rural areas, fostering high-diversity landscapes can increase
ecological connectivity and help species to adapt to climate change, while at the same
time enhancing ecosystem services such as pollination, climate and water regulation,
and erosion protection.
1
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
Contents
3
CHAPTER 3 A Greener, low-carbon Europe – PART 1
......................................................................................... 1
3.1
3.2
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
EU climate action and the European Green Deal......................................................................... 4
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions........................................................................................ 6
Increasing energy efficiency ...................................................................................................... 12
Boosting renewable energy ........................................................................................................ 13
Achieving low-carbon transport ............................................................................................... 17
The threat of floods from climate change ......................................................................... 20
Protecting Europe’s coasts against rising seas ................................................................ 22
Infrastructure is also at risk ....................................................................................................... 26
Unevenly distributed impact of extreme temperature events ................................. 28
More investment needed to improve water quality....................................................... 30
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.4
3.4.1
Reducing the impact of climate change ........................................................................................ 19
Improving our environment.................................................................................................................. 29
2
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
Figure 3-1 Change in greenhouse gas emissions outside the Emissions Trading Scheme,
2005-2018 and Europe 2030 targets ................................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3-2 Primary energy consumption, % change 2005-2019 and 2020 target .................. 13
Figure 3-3 Share of renewables in gross final energy consumption, 2006, 2018 and 2020
target .................................................................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 3-4 GHG emissions in transport 1990 to 2019 and projections to 2035, Metric tons
of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e), EU-27 ............................................................................................ 17
Figure 3-5 Passenger travel by transport mode, 2019 ............................................................................ 18
Figure 3-6 Freight transport by mode, 2019 ................................................................................................. 19
Figure 3-7 Estimated damage to coastlines in 2100 without and with adaptation measures
(high emissions scenario) ......................................................................................................................................... 23
Map 3-1 CO2 emissions from fossil fuels per head, NUTS2, 2018 ...................................................... 8
Map 3-2 Change in total CO2 emissions from fossil fuels between 1990 and 2018 ................ 9
Map 3-3 Employees in ETS stationary installations, 2018 ..................................................................... 11
Map 3-4 Decarbonizing employment potential in coal regions under the EUCO3232.5
energy scenario ............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Map 3-5 Economic damage due to floods in 2100 under the 3°C warming scenario relative
to the baseline ............................................................................................................................................................... 21
Map 3-6 Benefit to cost ratios of elevating dykes in NUTS2 regions under a moderate
mitigation and high emissions scenario ........................................................................................................... 25
Map 3-7 Expected annual damage to infrastructure due to inland flooding under a global
warming scenario of 3°C .......................................................................................................................................... 27
Map 3-8 Projected changes in human exposure to heat and cold waves events for a 3.0°C
levels of global warming .......................................................................................................................................... 29
Map 3-9 Urban wastewater receiving more stringent treatment ....................................................... 33
Table 3-1 Key EU climate and energy targets ................................................................................................. 5
3
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0005.png
3.1 Introduction
Recent extreme events such as deadly flooding in Germany and Belgium or uncontrollable
forest fires in Greece illustrate the challenges faced by the EU in tackling the consequences
of climate change. According to the last report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), almost the entire 1.1 degrees C of warming since the pre-industrial era is due
to human activity
1
. The IPCC gives a 50% chance that a 1.5 degrees C warming could be
reached before 2040. As a result, the negative impacts of climate change will become more
frequent and more severe and all regions in the EU will be affected.
At the same time, the world is facing a massive extinction episode. This translates into a
rapid fall in biodiversity which affects all parts of the world. At present, one million of the
eight million species known on the planet are at risk of being lost due to the impact of human
activities, including land and sea use changes, over-harvesting, climate change, pollution and
invasive alien species. Biodiversity loss due to human pressures continues also in the EU,
undermining the capacity of ecosystems to deliver benefits to humans. Yet, the quality of our
environment is essential to human wellbeing and to maintain the provision of key ecosystem
services such as climate regulation, flood protection, air and water quality, soil fertility,
pollination and the production of food, fuel, fibre and medicines.
This chapter looks at the main trends related to climate change and environment. It assesses
the extent to which the EU has or has not reached some of its key policy targets in the area.
It also analyses how and to what extent EU regions are affected by the consequences of
climate change and how they perform in preserving the quality of their environment.
3.2 EU climate action and the European Green Deal
Climate change and environmental degradation are the most challenging threats to living
conditions in Europe and, indeed, in the world as a whole. In response, the EU has adopted
the European Green Deal, a new growth strategy, with ambitious targets for resource-
efficiency, competitiveness, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and inclusiveness. The goal is
to make the EU economy and society climate-neutral by 2050 by cutting emissions, investing
in green technologies and protecting the natural environment. A European Climate Law has
been proposed by the Commission to make the goal legally binding
2
.
Over the past decades, the EU has adopted a series of targets for GHG emissions, energy
efficiency and the share of renewables in energy consumption with the aim of achieving the
transformation to a low carbon economy. The EU key targets were set in following
frameworks:
1
IPCC (2021), “Climate Change 2021 – The Physical Science Basis”, Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press.
COM/2020/80 final - Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL establishing the framework for
achieving climate neutrality and amending Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 (European Climate Law).
2
4
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0006.png
-
-
-
-
The 2020 climate and energy package adopted in 2007 and which aimed at a 20%
cut in GHG emissions (from 1990 levels), a 20% share of renewables in energy
consumption and a 20% improvement in energy efficiency by 2020;
the 2030 climate and energy framework adopted in 2014 which upgraded the 2020
targets to respectively 40%, 32% and 32.5%;
the European Green Deal, in which the Commission proposed an update of the 2030
target for reducing GHG emissions by 55% and raise the targets relative to
renewables and energy efficiency to 40% and 36% respectively;
the 2050 long-term strategy aiming at making the EU climate-neutral by 2050.
Table 3-1 summarises the most recent steps taken by the EU in setting climate and energy
targets.
Table 3-1 Key EU climate and energy targets
Target time timeline
Policy framework
Year of adoption
Targets
GHG emissions reduction
Share of renewables in energy
consumption
Increase in energy efficiency
2020
2020 Climate
and Energy
Package
2007
20%
20%
20%
2030
2030 Climate
and Energy
Framework
2014
40%
32%
32.5%
2030
EU Climate Law
and Fit for 55
2021
55%
40%
36-39%%
2050
EU Climate Law
and Fit for 55
2021
Net zero GHG
emissions
NA
NA
In July 2021, the European Commission adopted a series of legislative proposals setting out
how it intends to achieve climate neutrality in the EU by 2050, including the intermediate
target of an at least 55% net reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. The so-called
‘Fit for 55’ package combines the application of emissions trading to new sectors and a
tightening of the existing EU Emissions Trading System, accelerating the use of renewable
energy and greater energy efficiency, a faster roll-out of low emission transport modes, an
alignment of taxation policies with the European Green Deal objectives, measures to prevent
carbon leakage and tools to preserve and grow the EU’s natural carbon sinks. At the same
time, a more transparent and dynamic governance process has been set up to help meet the
2030 targets and the EU’s international commitments under the Paris Agreement, involving
an integrated monitoring system and reporting rules.
For these plans to succeed, action in all parts of the EU economy is needed, notably
investment in environmentally-friendly technologies, targeted R&D and innovation, cleaner,
cheaper and healthier forms of private and public transport, decarbonisation of the energy
sector and improvements in the energy efficiency of buildings.
5
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0007.png
3.2.1 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Under the 2020 climate and energy package
3
, the EU committed to reducing GHG emissions
by 20% by 2020 relative to 1990. The pursuit of this objective was supported by two
instruments, the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) and the Effort Sharing Decision (ESD).
The ETS is a market based tool for cutting emissions from large-scale power and industrial
plants and aviation. It covers around 45% of EU total emissions and the target at the time
was to reduce these emissions by 21% below the 2005 level by 2020. The ESD covers sectors
not included in the EU ETS, such as transport, buildings, agriculture (non-CO2 emissions) and
waste, which account for around 55% of EU emissions. Member States have committed to
national 2020 targets, set according to their levels of development – from a 20% cut for the
most developed countries to a maximum increase of 20% for the least developed relative to
2005. The ESD objective is to reduce emissions in the sectors it covers by 10%.
According to the latest figures available, the EU is likely to have met its 2020 target. Between
1990 and 2019, GHG emissions were reduced by 24%, while EU GDP grew by around 60%.
Accordingly, the GHG emission intensity of the economy, defined as emissions relative to
GDP, fell to less than half of the 1990 level
4
. EU-27 emissions covered by the ESD were 10%
lower in 2019 than in 2005, so the 2020 target is likely to have been achieved.
In 2014, the EU has enacted legislation to reduce emissions by at least 40% by 2030.
National emission targets for ESD sectors have been revised to achieve a reduction of 30%
by 2030 relative to 2005. These targets, enshrined in the Effort Sharing Regulation
5
, range
from a reduction of 0 to 40%. Although all Member States have committed to not increasing
emissions from their ESD sectors, they have risen in Malta, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland
(Figure 3-1)
6
.
In 2018, levels of ESD emissions were lower than the 2030 target only in Greece, Hungary
and Croatia and were well above it in a number of countries, either because the target was
set at a high level (as in Luxembourg, Finland, Germany, and Belgium - a cut of 35% or more
in all cases) or because emissions have been reduced only slightly (as in Ireland) or have
increased (as in Bulgaria, Latvia, Lithuania , Malta and Poland).
3
The 2020 climate and energy package is a set of binding legislation to ensure the EU meets its climate and
energy targets for 2020. The targets were set by EU leaders in 2007 and enacted in legislation in 2009.
They are also the headline targets of the Europe 2020 strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.
European Commission (2020), EU Climate Action Progress Report 2020.
REGULATION (EU) 2018/842 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 30 May 2018;
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32018R0842&from=EN.
The national targets under the ESD should be revised in the context of the ‘Fit for 55’ package but they
have not been set yet.
4
5
6
6
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0008.png
Figure 3-1 Change in greenhouse gas emissions outside the Emissions Trading
Scheme, 2005-2018 and Europe 2030 targets
Source: Source: EUROSTAT, regulation(EU) 2018/842 and Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2020/2126.
Member States with actual changes above their target are highlighted.
Under the European Green Deal, as noted above, the EU launched the 2030 Climate Target
Plan under which it set a more ambitious target of cutting emissions by at least 55% below
1990 levels by 2030, instead of 40%, on the way to becoming climate neutral by 2050.
GHG emissions per head vary substantially within countries. This is notably the case in Spain,
Portugal, Germany, Greece, Bulgaria and Poland, where some regions are emission hotspots
(Map 3-1)
7
. Many factors can explain differences in high emission levels, including, in
particular, the level and composition of economic activity, the energy efficiency of production
plants and buildings and the use of renewable energy as well as land use, climate and
geography
8
.
7
The figures are based on the EDGAR (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research) database,
which provides emission data and grid maps for all countries from 1970 to 2015 (2018 for CO
2
), for both
air pollutants and greenhouse gases, calculated in a consistent way to be comparable between countries.
In order to estimate CO2 emissions, EDGAR uses international activity data (mainly energy balance statistics
from IEA (2017), IEA CO2 emissions by main fuel type and BP statistics), emission factors from various
technological databases and proxies to estimate the regional location of emissions . Because of differences
in methodology, the figures do not always match official estimates provided by Member States at national
level.
Crippa, M., Oreggioni, G., Guizzardi, D., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Lo Vullo, E., Solazzo, E., Monforti-Ferrario, F.,
Olivier, J.G.J. and Vignati, E. (2019), “Fossil CO2 and GHG emissions of all world countries - 2019 Report”,
EUR 29849 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, doi:10.2760/687800, JRC117610
- https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=50_GHG.
8
7
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0009.png
Map 3-1 CO2 emissions from fossil fuels per head, NUTS2, 2018
8
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0010.png
Map 3-2 Change in total CO2 emissions from fossil fuels between 1990 and 2018
9
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0011.png
Between 1990 and 2018, GHG emissions were reduced in most EU regions but they
significantly increased in some of them, notably in Cyprus, Ireland, Spain and Poland where
they soared by more than 30% (Map 3-2).
Box 3-1 Employment in EU ETS installations
The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) was launched in 2005 and it is the world’s biggest
greenhouse gas trading programme, covering around 14,000 factories in the EU-27, power
stations and other companies in the EU, most of them being highly energy-intensive
installations. The key principle of the ETS is to set a total annual quantity of GHG (measured
in CO2 equivalent) and sell it by auction to the installations involved.
The geographical distribution of the ETS installations among EU NUTS 2 regions is very
heterogeneous. A recent study on employment in ETS installations
9
estimates that
employment in ETS installations corresponds to around 1% of the EU-27 total employment
but with some regional variations (Map 3-3). In 2018, persons employed in the EU ETS
installations constituted more than 3% of total employment in seven NUTS 2 regions,
peaking at 4.1% in Közép-Dunántúl (Hungary). At NUTS 3 level, the share of employment
in ETS installations exceeds 10% in three regions, with a maximum at 14% in Gotlands län
(Sweden). Five out of the top 10 regions are located in Germany.
There has been a concern that the ETS adds costs to companies, implies loss in
competitiveness and encourages relocation of activities in places where environmental
regulations are less stringent. However, an increase in the price of carbon can lead to a
variety of different responses from industry apart from reducing activities and/or
employment, such as improving energy efficiency, changing the type of energy used,
adapting technology, or innovate.
This is confirmed by a number of studies on the impact of the EU ETS on firms performance
and on employment which generally conclude (i) that the EU ETS offers competitive
advantages compared to alternative regulatory scenarios and (ii) the EU ETS has so far not
had any statistically significant impact on regulated firms’ number of employees and profit.
Instead, the EU ETS induced regulated companies to increase investment, notably in
carbon-saving technologies (see for instance Abrell et al., 2011 or Dechezleprêtre et al.,
2018
10
).
9
European Commission (2021), “European Emissions Trading System (ETS) – Calculations on the regional employment
impact of ETS installations, Analytical and methodological report”, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
Abrell, J., Ndoye Faye, A. and Zachmann, G. (2011), “Assessing the impact of the EU EST using firm level data”, Bruegel
Working Paper 2011/08; Dechezleprêtre, A., Nachtigall, D. and Venmans, F. (2018), “The joint impact of the European Union
emissions trading system on carbon emissions and economic performance”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers
No. 1515.
10
10
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0012.png
Map 3-3 Employees in ETS stationary installations, 2018
11
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0013.png
3.2.2 Increasing energy efficiency
Increasing energy efficiency is key to protecting the environment, reducing GHG emissions
and improving the quality of life. The EU has set ambitious targets for 2020 and 2030,
focusing on the sectors where the potential for savings is the greatest, such as buildings.
As part of the 2020 climate and energy package, the objective set in 2007 was to improve
energy efficiency by 20% by 2020
11
compared to the projections made at that time. To
achieve this objective, Member States were asked to set their own indicative national energy
efficiency targets
12
.
In 2018, the Energy Efficiency Directive
13
was amended to establish a target for 2030 of
reducing EU energy consumption by at least 32.5%
14
. A reduction in energy consumption,
however, does not necessarily signify an improvement in energy efficiency. The main
determinants of energy use are GDP growth and the share of manufacturing in the economy.
Changes in energy consumption, therefore, reflect not only changes in energy efficiency but
also fluctuations in economic activity as well as changes in the structure of the economy.
In 2019, primary and final energy consumption
15
had decreased by 9.7% and 5.5%
respectively compared to their 2005 levels. However, primary and final energy consumption
levels were respectively 3.0% and 2.6% above the 2020 targets and 19.9% and 16.3% above
the 2030 targets. It is therefore likely that the EU will miss its 2020 targets while it is still
far from the 2030 targets, implying a need for additional efforts to make the EU economy
more energy efficient.
Progress in reducing energy use varies markedly between Member States. In 2018, only 11
of the 27 Member States had lowered primary energy consumption below their 2020 target
and only 9 had reduced final consumption below the target. In a number of Member States,
the reduction required to meet the targets was still considerable (Cyprus, Malta, Bulgaria and
France in respect of primary energy consumption and Lithuania, Hungary, Malta and Slovakia
in respect of final consumption) (Figure 3-2).
11
The 20% energy efficiency target was enacted in legislation with the adoption of the Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU
in 2012.
DIRECTIVE 2012/27/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency.
Member States targets are included in their National Action Plan and Annual Progress Report
(https://ec.europa.eu/energy/topics/energy-efficiency/targets-directive-and-rules/national-energy-efficiency-action-
plans_en?redir=1).
With the withdrawal of the United Kingdom, the Union's energy consumption figures for 2020 and 2030
were adjusted to the situation of 27 Member States.
Energy Efficiency Directive 2018/2002.
The ‘Fit for 55’ package has set the EU target at 36% but as for the ESD, national targets have not been set yet.
Primary energy consumption measures total domestic energy demand, while final energy consumption refers to what end
users actually consume. The difference relates mainly to what the energy sector needs itself and to transformation and
distribution losses.
12
13
14
15
12
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0014.png
Figure 3-2 Primary energy consumption, % change 2005-2019 and 2020 target
Source: EUROSTAT.
3.2.3 Boosting renewable energy
Renewable sources play an increasing role in the production of energy in the EU. The share
of renewables in gross final consumption of energy in the EU rose steadily from 11% in 2006
to 19% in 2018. In the 2020 climate and energy package of 2007, the objective was to raise
this share to at least 20% by 2020, with a 10% share of renewables in transport. EU Member
States have committed to meeting binding national targets for the share of renewables in
energy consumption under the Renewable Energy Directive
16
of 2009. These range from 10%
in Malta to 49% in Sweden.
The 2030 climate and energy framework of 2014 set the target of reaching a share of 32%
of renewables in energy consumption by 2030 but, as part of the ‘Fit for 55’ package, the
Commission has proposed to increase this target to 40%
17
. For this target to be reached, the
share of renewables would have to double compared to levels of 2018.
The share of renewables in energy consumption varies substantially across the EU. In 2018,
it was over 40% in Finland and Latvia and close to 55% in Sweden (Figure 3-3). It is much
smaller in other countries – below 10% in Malta, Luxemburg, Belgium and the Netherlands –
16
Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of
the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives
2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
To reach the 2030 target, the overall binding target of 40% of renewables in the EU energy mix will be
complemented by indicative national contributions, showing what each Member State should contribute to
reach the collective target (COM(2021) 550 final).
17
13
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0015.png
though it has increased significantly in recent years. In 2018, 13 Member States had reached
their national target set for 2020, Sweden, Estonia and Denmark exceeding it by over 5
percentage points. At the same time , some countries are still far from their target, like
Belgium, France and Ireland where the share of renewables in 2018 was still less than 75%
of the national 2020 target. For the Netherlands to meet their target, the share of renewables
would need to have almost doubled between 2018 and 2020.
The capacity to produce renewable energy is closely linked to the geography of countries and
regions. The production of wind energy is easier in coastal regions, like those of north-western
Europe and Baltic Seas, the Atlantic and some Mediterranean coasts. The production of
hydroelectricity requires suitable geo-physical features, while the potential for solar energy
production is higher in southern European regions where there are many more days of
sunshine. For instance, in 2018, the photovoltaic (solar panel) capacity per head in the EU
was largest in Germany (590 watts per inhabitant), followed by the Netherlands (401) and
Belgium (394)
18
. In Spain (197 watts per inhabitant) and Portugal (88), it was much less
despite the potential production of electricity by this means being among the highest in the
EU.
Figure 3-3 Share of renewables in gross final energy consumption, 2006, 2018 and
2020 target
Source: EEA, EUROSTAT T2020_31.
18
EUOBSERV’ER, Photovoltaic barometer, April 2020.
14
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0016.png
Box 3-2 Coal regions in transition
The deployment of renewable energy sources can be an opportunity for many regions. This
is notably the case for Coal Regions in Transition
19
(CRiT), which could facilitate energy
transition and support post-mining communities through the jobs induced by the
installation of renewable energy production capacities. According to recent research by the
Joint Research Centre (JRC), up to 315 000 jobs could be created in the coal regions by
2030 by deploying renewable energy technologies as projected in the EUCO3232.5 energy
scenario
20
. Around 200 000 additional full time equivalent jobs a year could be created if
the potential for energy efficiency in residential buildings were realised
21
.
Transition opportunities vary between regions (Map 3-4). In the majority of CRiTs in the EU,
clean energy and energy efficiency technologies could trigger significantly higher
employment than in their coal industry at present, while in a number of others, potential
employment with such technologies is similar to that in their coal industry.
In Map 3-4, regions are grouped as follows:
17 regions with High Decarbonising Employment Potential (HDEP): where potential
employment in RES- sectors is currently comparable to coal-related jobs. Future
decarbonisation will result in the latter being exceeded, though support may be
needed to realise the potential identified fully.
7 regions with Slow Decarbonising Employment Potential (SDEP) which can
potentially develop decarbonising sectors to compensate for the loss of coal-
related jobs. The pace of change estimated in the EUCO3232.5 scenario could
generate transitionary imbalances., so that support might be needed to accelerate
the development of these sectors.
7 regions with restricted decarbonising employment potential (RDEP):which under
the EUCO3232.5 scenario do not develop employment in decarbonising sectors to
a level similar to existing coal-related jobs. Support might be needed to mobilise
untapped potential or to promote alternative employment options.
19
The JRC has identified the European CRiTs that will be affected by the reduction in coal mining and coal
powered-plant activities, estimating that more than 200 000 jobs may be at risk. See P. Alves Dias et al.
(2018), “EU coal regions: opportunities and challenges ahead”, JRC Science for Policy Report, Publications
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. doi: 10.2760/064809.
In order to estimate the potential impact of the EU’s climate and energy targets for 2030, the Commission
has developed a set of scenarios, the EUCO scenarios. The most recent scenario. EUCO3232.5, models the
impact of achieving the target for improving energy efficiency by 32.5% and the target for the share of
renewables in energy consumption of 32%, as agreed in the ”Clean energy for all Europeans package”. This
scenario was used to support the Commission’s June 2019 assessment of the draft national energy and
climate plans (NECPs), submitted by Member States.
The analysis considers various types of job created in terms of their nature and duration. The jobs relating
to operations and maintenance are assumed to last 15 years from the installation date, those relating to
the manufacturing of the equipment one year (that before the installation) and those associated with
installation also one year (that of the installation).
20
21
15
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0017.png
Map 3-4 Decarbonizing employment potential in coal regions under the
EUCO3232.5 energy scenario
16
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0018.png
3.2.4 Achieving low-carbon transport
After a sharp drop between 2008 and 2014 as a consequence of the 2008 economic crisis,
GHG emissions from transport in the EU increased from 2014 to 2019 at rates similar to
those in the period 1990-2008, just under 2% a year
22
(Figure 3-4). This implies that
transport has not followed the general tendency for GHG emissions to decline in recent years.
Its contribution to overall GHG emissions in the EU has therefore become more significant.
Projections suggest that GHG emissions from transport will decline relatively little over the
next few years and will remain higher than in 1990, even with measures currently planned
in Member States. Further action is therefore needed, particularly in road transport but also
in aviation and shipping where demand is pushing emissions up in both absolute and relative
terms. Emission reduction in all transport sub-sectors will need to be much more ambitious
if the sector as a whole is to contribute its fair share to the goals set out in the European
Green Deal.
Figure 3-4 GHG emissions in transport 1990 to 2019 and projections to 2035
23
,
Metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2e), EU-27
Source: EEA.
The new EU Strategy on Sustainable and Smart Mobility
24
includes measures aimed at
significantly reducing CO2 and polluting emissions in all modes of transport with the objective
22
See EEA, Indicator Assessment, Greenhouse gas emissions from transport in Europe,
https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/transport-emissions-of-greenhouse-gases-
7/assessment.
The values shown include all domestic transport emissions as well as international aviation and
international maritime transport. The 'with existing measures' scenario reflects existing policies and
measures and the 'with additional measures' scenario also includes further planned policies and measures
reported by Member States until March 2020.
The EU Strategy for Sustainable and Smart Mobility (EUSSSM) was announced by the European Commission as
part of its Communication on the European Green Deal. The EUSSSM aims to contribute to the achievement of
the EU Green Deal target of reducing transport-related GHG emissions by 90% by 2050.
23
24
17
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0019.png
of reducing emissions by 90% by 2050. As part of the strategy, the Commission will foster
the use of more sustainable transport modes such as rail and inland waterways.
The use of cars remains predominant for passenger travel and has even expanded slightly in
recent years (Figure 3-5). In 2014, cars were used for 82.2% of inland travel and in 2019 for
82.8%. The share of passenger travel by train increased slightly from 7.7% to 8.0%, meaning
that the share by buses, trams and trolleybuses fell from 10.1% to 9.2%. Cars account for
less than 80% of passenger travel in only 5 Member States (Romania, Austria, Slovakia,
Czechia and Hungary), while in Lithuania the share is over 90%.
Figure 3-5 Passenger travel by transport mode, 2019
Source: EUROSTAT
These trends are a matter of concern as transport is responsible for almost a quarter of EU
GHG emissions and is the main cause of air pollution in cities. Roads are by far the biggest
emitter accounting for over 70% of all GHG emissions from transport in 2019. Emissions
from road transport, however, are expected to diminish as it decarbonises faster than other
modes. The largest increases are expected in aviation and international maritime transport,
which are likely to account for a bigger share of transport emissions in coming years.
As in the case of passenger travel, most goods in the EU are transported by road (
Figure 3-6). In 2019, 76.6% of freight was carried by road, up from 73.9% in 2014. In 8
countries, the share is over 80%, peaking at 98 and 99 in Greece and Ireland, respectively
(Malta and Cyprus have no inland waterways and railways transport, therefore the share
freight carried by road is 100%). At the other end of the scale, over half of freight is
transported by rail or inland waterways in Bulgaria, Romania, Latvia and Lithuania.
18
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0020.png
Figure 3-6 Freight transport by mode, 2019
Source: EUROSTAT.
3.3 Reducing the impact of climate change
Climate change is recognised as the most serious threat to human societies around the world.
Scientists see an increase in global temperature of 2°C relative to pre-industrial times as the
threshold beyond which there is a very real risk that dangerous and possibly catastrophic
changes in the global environment will occur. The past three decades have been warmer than
any previous decade since records began in 1850. All parts of the world are potentially
affected by the consequences of a rapid rise in temperature and the various climatic changes
that are associated with it. Southern and part of Eastern Europe will experience more frequent
and severe heat waves, forest fires and droughts. Already Northern Europe is becoming much
wetter, with increasing risk of floods and extreme weather events, while coastal areas face
the devastating consequences of rising sea levels from the melting of polar ice sheets and
glaciers. The marine environment is also heavily affected by climate change and these
impacts are projected to increase dramatically with severe implications for marine currents,
vulnerable ecosystems such as coral reefs, biological resources and food chains.
The effects of climate change pose a major challenge for a growing number of EU regions.
Around 7% of EU population live in areas at high risk of floods and over 9% live in areas
where there are already over 120 days a year without rain. The exposure of EU regions to
the damaging effects of climate change, however, differ widely between them, depending on
19
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0021.png
their location but also the structure of their economies, given that sectors such as tourism or
agriculture are likely to be particularly affected.
3.3.1 The threat of floods from climate change
Flooding is a major cause of economic damage and loss of life in Europe and other parts of
the world
25
. Despite considerable efforts to reduce the risk, the damage from floods appears
to have increased over recent decades
26
. Ongoing climate change coupled with growing land
take, especially in flood plains, is likely to further increase the social and economic damage
in the EU.
The greater risk of floods for future societies makes it important to identify adaptation
strategies that are effective and sustainable in economic, social and environmental terms.
In particular, such strategies need to be assessed in terms not only of their effectiveness in
reducing the potential damage, but also of the economic costs involved (e.g. for building
and maintaining defences). According to recent estimates of the consequences of river
flooding
27
, if no mitigation and adaptation measures are taken and the global temperature
rises by 3°C by the end of the century, economic losses from river flooding will grow to
nearly €50 billion a year, or over 6 times more than at present, and nearly three times as
many people would be exposed to flooding
28
. The damaging effects are projected to
increase with higher temperatures and economic growth in almost all EU regions, although
countries in Eastern Europe would suffer larger losses relative to their GDP (
Map 3-5). Limiting global warming to 1.5°C would halve economic losses and the population
exposed to river flooding in the EU.
25
See for instance Alfieri, L., Feyen, L., Dottori, F., Bianchi, A. (2015), “Ensemble flood risk assessment in Europe under high
end climate scenarios”, Global Environmental Change 35, 199–212,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.09.004.
Paprotny, D., Sebastian, A., Morales-Napoles, O., Jonkman, S. (2018) Trends in flood losses in Europe over the past 150
years. Nature Communications 9(1), 1985, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-04253-1.
Dottori F, Mentaschi L, Bianchi A, Alfieri L and Feyen L (2020), “Adapting to rising river flood risk in the EU under climate
change”, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, doi:10.2760/14505, JRC118425.
Dottori F, Mentaschi L, Bianchi A, Alfieri L and Feyen L (2020), “Adapting to rising river flood risk in the EU under climate
change”, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, doi:10.2760/14505, JRC118425.
26
27
28
20
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0022.png
Map 3-5 Economic damage due to floods in 2100 under the 3°C warming scenario
relative to the baseline
21
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0023.png
Flood risk reduction strategies can substantially reduce the projected losses due to climate
change. However, these strategies have different costs as well as benefits, as illustrated by
a recent study which assessed four different approaches to limit the damages from coastal
flooding
29
:
-
Strengthening existing dyke systems, which is likely to have larger benefits than costs
but tend to transfer risks downstream by stimulating further the development of
human settlements and activities in risk zones behind flood barriers, which can result
in catastrophic effects in case of failure;
Retention areas and dykes require large investment but can reduce the economic and
human losses substantially;
Flood proofing buildings can markedly reduce losses with limited investment, but they
do not prevent floods from happening and so can only partly prevent flood damage.
Relocation can produce the largest benefits but tends to be the least cost-effective,
though the costs involved vary substantially; it also tends to have low social
acceptance.
-
-
-
Results suggest that reducing flood peaks using retention areas has strong potential for
lowering the effects in a cost-efficient way in most EU countries (see section 3.3.2).
Implementing such a strategy at EU level could reduce the economic damage and population
exposed to flooding by over 70% by 2100. Moreover, retention areas have many additional
benefits, such as restoring the natural functioning of flood plains and improving the
ecosystem by improving nutrient removal, water filtration and the replenishment of
groundwater reservoirs, providing fish-spawning habitat as well as opportunities for
recreation and nature-based activities. Depending on local circumstances, other strategies
than creating retention areas may be more suitable.
3.3.2 Protecting Europe’s coasts against rising seas
Coastal zones are areas of high interest. Over 200 million people in the EU live within 50 km
of the coast, stretching from the north-east Atlantic and the Baltic to the Mediterranean and
Black Sea and in the EU outermost regions, and the evidence is that migration to coastal
zones is continuing. Such areas in many cases are locations for major commercial activities
and support diverse ecosystems with important habitats and sources of food.
Coastal zones are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to the combined effects of
rising sea levels and the increasing frequency and intensity of storms, adding to already
significant pressures from human activities. The mean global sea level has increased by 13-
20 cm since pre-industrial times
30
and at an accelerating rate since the 1990s, the rise since
29
Vousdoukas, M. I. et al (2020), « Economic motivation for raising coastal flood defences in Europe”, Nature
Communications 11, 2119, doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15665-3.
See for instance Dangendorf, S. et al (2019),, “Persistent acceleration in global sea-level rise since the
1960s”, Nature Climate Change 9, 705-710, doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0531-8.
30
22
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0024.png
1950 being explicable by global warming
31
. This has already contributed to coastal erosion
and made Europe’s coasts more susceptible to hazards. The continued rise in sea levels from
global warming could result in unprecedented coastal flood losses in the EU unless additional
coastal protection and measures to reduce risks are implemented.
This is affirmed by a recent study
32
, which assesses the costs and benefits of applying
additional protection through dyke improvements. The largest amounts of damage are
projected for France, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands and Germany (Figure 3-7), though for
some countries the potential damage is larger in relation to GDP, such as for Cyprus (5%),
Greece (3%) and Denmark (2%). Appropriate adaptation measures are therefore needed to
lessen these damaging effects.
Figure 3-7 Estimated damage to coastlines in 2100 without and with adaptation
measures (high emissions scenario)
33
Source: Vousdoukas et al. (2020).
As argued by the authors, raising dyke levels along the EU coast could significantly reduce
damages from flooding. The costs and benefits involved, however, vary markedly along
coastal sections. The presence of human settlements makes investing in dykes economically
beneficial, typically when population density exceeds 500 people per square km. In urbanised
and major economic areas, the benefits of raising dykes tend to be several times the costs.
31
Fasullo, J. T. and Nerem, R. S. (2018), “Altimeter-era emergence of the patterns of forced sea-level rise in
climate models and implications for the future”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115,
12944-12949, doi:10.1073/pnas.1813233115
Vousdoukas, M., Mentaschi, L., Hinkel, J., Ward, Ph., Mongelli, I., Ciscar,J-C, and L. Feyen (2020), “Economic
motivation for raising coastal flood defenses in Europe”, Nature Communications 11, 2119,
doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15665-3.
Projections to 2100 under a high emissions scenario corresponding to a global warming scenario called
“RCP8.5” frequently referred to as “business as usual”, suggesting it is a likely outcome if concerted efforts
are not made to cut GHG emissions.
32
33
23
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
Under a high emissions scenario, this would be the case for around 23% of the EU coastline.
For the remainder, additional protection against coastal flooding is not needed or is not
economically beneficial. This is either because natural barriers will provide sufficient
protection against the rise in sea levels or because the costs of increasing dyke levels
outweigh the benefits, such as in almost inhabited areas or along winding coastlines.
The analysis suggests that the average increase in the height of coastal defences needed
where further protection is required is one meter under a high emissions scenario. In Slovenia,
Latvia, Poland, Germany and the Netherlands it is well above this, and in Belgium it is over 2
meters. This implies that along many such areas, the shoreline might well become
disconnected from hinterland areas.
When benefits and costs are aggregated across coastal sections of NUTS2 regions, the
benefits to cost ratio (BCR) is highest in urban centres (
Map 3-6
). Adaptation brings large net
economic benefits in the Ionian Islands (a BCR of 30 under a high emissions scenario), País
Vasco (27), Aquitaine (16), Calabria (11.3), Basse-Normandie (14), Pays de la Loire (13),
Puglia (11) and Alentejo (11).
24
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0026.png
Map 3-6 Benefit to cost ratios of elevating dykes in NUTS2 regions under a moderate
mitigation and high emissions scenario
25
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0027.png
Aggregating the results for coastal sections to the country level shows the Netherlands to
have the highest BCR under a high emissions scenario (18), followed by Greece (12), France
and Belgium (11 for each). By contrast, the BCR is low – though still over 1 – in Bulgaria,
Finland, Romania, Croatia and Malta (3 or less in each case).
Investments in green infrastructure can also provide an efficient mean to enhance EU coastal
defences against sea level rise. In particular, protecting and restoring costal ecosystems such
as seagrass meadows and coral reefs can buffer the impacts of storms and help to reduce
coastal erosion while bringing simultaneous benefits for biodiversity and natural resources.
3.3.3 Infrastructure is also at risk
The EU has an extensive transport network, with around 5 million km of paved roads, 0.5
million km of railways, over 2 400 airports, and almost 2 000 seaports, with a combined
estimated value of around EUR 9 trillion. This is particularly susceptible to climate hazards
and so is generally built to withstand the variations in temperature as indicated by historical
observations, or according to regional standards of construction. However, rises in average
temperatures or greater frequency of extreme weather events as a result of increased GHG
emissions are likely to lead to increased economic losses.
A recent study
34
estimates the direct effects of flooding and heatwaves (two of the most
damaging climate-related hazards according to a 20 year review by the UN Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction
35
) on the transport network in the EU, covering the modes of roads,
railways, airports, and seaports. For each hazard, the effect is estimated as the change in
expected annual damage for global warming levels of 1.5, 2, and 3°C relative to 1981–2010.
As would be expected, flood risk is concentrated in areas prone to flooding with high-value
infrastructure, such as motorways and electrified railways. Some 95% of potential flood
damage comes from roads and railways, with airports and seaports accounting for only 4%.
The estimated cost of potential damage to railways is particularly high, at almost twice that
of roads, reflecting the much higher costs of reconstruction and their location in lower lying
terrain.
Nearly all regions in the EU are expected to experience increasing flood damage to their
infrastructure as a results of climate change, particularly those prone to flooding in north-
western and Eastern Europe, where the damage could in some case be over 6 times the
present damage with global warming of 3°C. For most southern regions, damage to transport
infrastructure from floods is projected to increase less dramatically, but could still be over
twice as high as today (
Map 3-7
).
34
Feyen, L., Mulholland E., Dottori, F., Alfieri, L., Mentaschi, L., Ciscar, J-C, (2020), “Climate change impacts and
adaptation in Europe” - PESETA IV. JRC.
Pascaline, W. and H. Rowena (2018), “Economic Losses, Poverty & Disasters: 1998-2017”. United Nations
Office for Disaster Risk Reduction.
35
26
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0028.png
Map 3-7 Expected annual damage to infrastructure due to inland flooding under a global
warming scenario of 3°C
27
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0029.png
Road maintenance costs are also projected to rise in all EU regions as a result of more
frequent spells of extreme heat. The most significantly affected countries in terms of
additional cost to maintenance are Bulgaria, Poland, Greece, Ireland and Romania. Future risk
can be alleviated by upgrading roads or doing more frequent maintenance.
Most of the increased maintenance costs are on tertiary and rural roads, which are generally
managed by local authorities. Since their road maintenance budgets already tend to be
constrained, damages from climate change could be particularly problematic for them.
The buckling of railway lines is also likely to occur more frequently with global warming so
increasing maintenance costs. The biggest increases (of up to 10% with global warming by
3°C) are projected for regions in Germany and southern Spain, because of stress-free
temperatures
36
being likely to be exceeded most often. Significant increases are also likely
in regions in Belgium, France, Sweden, Finland, Poland and Czechia.
3.3.4 Unevenly distributed impact of extreme temperature events
Extreme heat events are projected to happen more frequently and become more intense with
climate change. The number of people exposed to heatwaves in the EU is projected to grow
from 10 million/year (average 1981-2010) to nearly 300 million/year in a scenario with 3°C
global average warming by the end of this century
37
. As a result, the number of fatalities
from extreme heat could increase up to nearly 100,000 per year if no mitigation measures
are taken, which is significantly higher than the current 2,750 annual deaths.
The exposure of the population to the risk of extreme temperature considerably varies across
EU Member States and regions. Risks of being exposed to extreme heat should increase in
southern Europe while milder winters could reduce significantly exposure to extreme cold,
nearly 10-fold with 3°C global average warming by the end of this century (Map 3-8).
Heatwaves, human exposure and fatalities are projected to increase everywhere in Europe
but Cyprus, Greece, Malta and Spain could see a 40-fold increase in mortality from heatwaves
if no adaptation and mitigation actions are taken.
36
Stress-free (or neutral) temperature is the point at which the rail is not in tension or compression. The
stress-free temperature is usually set at 5° or so above the mid-point between the lowest and highest
temperature the rail is likely to reach. Railway companies need to monitor the stress-free temperature of
the rail to identify risks, plan effective maintenance and maintain safety and operating performance.
The PESETA IV task on human impacts of heat and cold extremes provides a quantitative assessment of
human exposure to and mortality from these extremes in Europe. The methodology integrates empirical
data on human losses from disasters, past climate information, EUROSTAT demographic data and high
resolution climate and socio-economic projections.
37
28
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0030.png
Map 3-8 Projected changes in human exposure to heat and cold waves events for a 3.0°C
levels of global warming
In order to limit exposure and the increase of fatalities linked to extreme heat, a wide range
of measures can be taken, including improved design and insulation of houses, schools and
hospitals, education or early warning systems. This risk also needs to be taken into
consideration in urban planning in order to minimise the urban heat island effect
38
. In that
perspective, urban green infrastructure can play an important role, notably by increasing tree
and vegetative cover, installing green or reflecting roofs, or using cool pavements (see section
3.5).
3.4 Improving our environment
The EU faces unprecedented challenges of environmental sustainability, notably from
accelerating biodiversity loss, degradation of ecosystem services, depletion of scarce
resources and various forms of pollution, with the associated risk to human health and well-
being.
38
Urban heat islands are urbanised areas that experience higher temperatures than outlying areas. This is often due to the
fact that structures such as buildings, roads, and other infrastructure absorb and re-emit the sun’s heat more than natural
landscapes such as forests and water bodies.
29
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0031.png
As pointed by a series of recent scientific reports from the EEA, IPCC, IPBES, IRP and UN
Environment
39
, current trends in production and consumption are fundamentally
unsustainable.
The EU has launched many policy initiatives to address these challenges, putting in place a
broad range of legislation to reduce air, water and soil pollution. These have produced
substantial benefits over recent decades. EU citizens enjoy some of the best water quality in
the world and over 18% of the EU land area has been designated as protected for nature. As
part of the European Green Deal, the European Commission adopted the EU Biodiversity
Strategy 2030, which acknowledges nature restoration as a key contribution to both climate
change mitigation and adaptation, the Farm to Fork Strategy
40
, the Zero pollution action
plan
41
, the EU forest strategy
42
and the EU Soil Strategy
43
. The 8th Environmental Action Plan
is designed to support the objectives of the European Green Deal and the transition towards
a climate-neutral, resource-efficient and regenerative economy while improving the status
of ecosystems.
These EU initiatives have set targets to tackle environmental challenges via concerted action
and systemic solutions. Their delivery will greatly depend on support from EU and national
policy and funding instruments.
3.4.1 More investment needed to improve water quality
Essential for human health and well-being, water is also a key resource for agriculture,
certain industries, energy production and transport. Water and wetland areas are also
39
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports on 1.5 °C Global Warming and Climate Change and Land;
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Global Assessment Report on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services; International Resource Panel (IRP) Global Resources Outlook report; UN Environment
Global Environment Outlook 6.
The farm to fork strategy sets ambitious targets by 2030 on reducing the use and risk of chemical pesticides and the use
of more hazardous pesticides by 50%, reducing nutrient losses by at least 50%, reducing the use of fertilisers by at least
20%, reducing the sales of antimicrobials for farmed animals and in aquaculture by 50% and reaching 25% of agricultural
land under organic farming. The reform of the Common Agricultural Policy and the national CAP Strategic Plans to be in
place as of 2023 will contribute to achieving those targets.
The zero pollution action plan for 2050 aims at reducing air, water and soil pollution to levels no longer considered harmful
to health and natural ecosystems. It includes key 2030 targets: improving air quality to reduce the number of premature
deaths caused by air pollution by 55%; improving water quality by reducing waste, plastic litter at sea (by 50%) and
microplastics released into the environment (by 30%); improving soil quality by reducing nutrient losses and chemical
pesticides’ use by 50%; reducing the EU ecosystems where air pollution threatens biodiversity by 25%; reducing the share
of people chronically disturbed by transport noise by 30%, and significantly reducing waste generation and residual
municipal waste by 50%.
The new EU forest strategy for 2030 supports the EU’s biodiversity objectives as well as the GHG reduction target of at
least 55% by 2030 and climate neutrality by 2050.
EU Soil Strategy for 2030: reaping the benefits of healthy soils for people, food, nature and climate (COM(2021) 699 final).
The aim of the EU Soil Strategy is to help achieve land degradation neutrality by 2030. The strategy will consider challenges
such as identifying contaminated sites, restoring degraded soils, defining the conditions for their good ecological status
and improving the monitoring of soil quality.
40
41
42
43
30
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0032.png
necessary for the provision of a number of ecosystem services (e.g. floodplains) and
indispensable for preserving biodiversity as habitats for many species.
The condition of water bodies in the EU is a concern. Only 40 % of these are in good ecological
state and many wetlands are in a poor condition
44
. Even though various sources of pollution
have been reduced over the past decade, the pressure from nutrients
45
, hazardous
substances and over-abstraction of water remains high. This implies that the objective set in
the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) of achieving good qualitative and quantitative
status of all water bodies by 2015 is still not reached.
Most EU citizens benefit from good water services (such as drinking water supply, and waste
water collection and treatment) but access to those services is still lacking in a number
regions, notably rural areas and less developed regions.
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
46
(UWWTD) has a key role in reducing water
pollution in the EU by requiring Member States to collect and treat urban wastewater. Its
objective is for all wastewater to be collected and suitably treated. Implementing the
Directive requires significant investment in new infrastructure but also in the maintenance
and extension of existing facilities.
The considerable investment made in improving urban wastewater treatment has helped to
reduce concentrations of organic matter and nutrients in surface waters. In 2018, more than
98% of urban wastewater was collected
47
, though there are still a number of agglomerations
where infrastructure needs to be built or improved. Only around 89% of wastewater was
collected in Croatia and 85% in Cyprus, while in Romania, the figure was less than 80%, with
just 57% being collected in Sud-Muntenia.
Significant effort is still required regarding treatment
48
. In the EU, around 7% of urban waste
water failed to meet secondary treatment (biological) standards in 2018, while over 16% did
not meet more stringent standards (removal of phosphorus and nitrogen). Almost 79% of
regions in EU provide at least secondary treatment to 90% of their urban wastewater, but
this share falls to 57% for more stringent treatment. Less than 30% of urban wastewater
44
European Environment Agency (2019), The European environment — state and outlook 2020, Knowledge for transition to
a sustainable Europe, Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. doi: 10.2800/96749.
Nutrient pollution is caused by excess nitrogen and phosphorus in the air and water. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nutrients
that are natural parts of aquatic ecosystems.
Council Directive 91/271/EEC.
These figures do not systematically correspond to the targets set in the UWWTD as in some Member States not all
agglomerations are required to comply with the provisions of the Directive because of transitional periods.
The level of treatment partly determines the effect of wastewater on aquatic ecosystems. Primary (mechanical) treatment
removes part of the suspended solids, while secondary (biological) treatment uses aerobic or anaerobic micro-organisms
to decompose most of the organic matter and retain some of the nutrients. Tertiary (advanced) treatment removes the
organic matter even more completely.
45
46
47
48
31
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
receives tertiary treatment in Croatian regions, some regions in Italy, Romania and Spain and
in a number of French and Portuguese outermost regions (
Map 3-9
).
32
 kom (2022) 0034 - Ingen titel
2524162_0034.png
Map 3-9 Urban wastewater receiving more stringent treatment
33